Abstract: In Manchu education of the Qing period，the Manchu “twelve heads，”a syllabary and language
primer，formed the basis of the curriculum． This paper examines the use and evolution of the “twelve
heads”from the point of view of textual criticism and the history of education，starting from the idea that
the structure of the “twelve heads”was an original product of the Manchus，different from Mongolian
character lists． After the conquest of China，the“twelve heads，”while rooted in the Manchu pedagogical
tradition，became part of a bilingual pedagogical paradigm shared with Chinese primers． The original
versions of the“twelve heads”were relatively simple character charts to be used as mnemonics． From the
mid-Qing onwards，the “twelve heads”developed into a comprehensive textbook complete with analyses
of the script that was suited for self-study． At the same time，scholars tried to make sense of the “twelve
heads”using concepts borrowed from the Chinese tradition． In the process，Manchu writing became
understood as consisting of syllabic characters in turn constituted of fixed brush strokes and thus on a par
with Chinese characters． The Manchu “twelve heads”were eventually integrated into an educational
tradition centered on the Chinese writing system．