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15 November 1999, Volume 0 Issue 4 Previous Issue    Next Issue

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The Qrigins of the Qinglian Jiao in the Qing Dynasty QIN Bao-Qi 1999, 0(4): 1-10.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1077KB) ( )   Although a majority of scholars have previously believed that Qinglian Jiao emerged from the Jiangnan Luo Jiao, evidence shows that it may have had two origins. One has Yingshi Wuwei Jiao and Yaomen Jiao which were prevalent in Zhejiang, Fujian and Jiangxi provinces since the Ming Dynasty, and which some scholars consider to Luo Jiao. The other possible origin was the Teachings of Yundun Dacheng Jiao which was prevalent in Jiangxi province since the Kangxi reign. Wu Zixiang, the key figure in the integration of the two sects, merged these two sects in Jiangxi province. Wu first joined the Yaomen Jiao and later turned to Dacheng Jiao uniting the two sects but retaining the name Dacheng. Dacheng Jiao developed into Qinglian Jiao and spread widely throughout Sichuan, Hunan and Hubei Provinces. During the reigns of Xianfeng and Tongzhi internal disputes over leadership arose and Qinglian Jiao disintegrated into many smaller branches such as Lianhua Jiao, Jindan Dao, Xiantian Dao, Guigen Dao, Yiguan Dao, Tongshan She, Yuanming Jiao and Pudu Dao, all of which became major secret societies in modern Chinese history. Related Articles | Metrics

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Comparative Study Between the Chinese Gentry and Japanese Warrior HAO Bing-Jian 1999, 0(4): 11-18.  Abstract ( )   PDF (678KB) ( )   Both Chinese gentry and Japanese warrior were feadal privileged strata, but they played different social roles in the course of modernization. The former actively safeguarded traditional political system, hindered the development of history, whereas the latter gradually turned into a political force fighting against Dechuan Mufu, propelled the society forward. In order to interpret this historical phenomenon, this article approaches the social feature of Chinese gentry and Japanese warrior from various angles. According to the author, Japanese warrior was an unstable stratum, Chinese gentry was a relatively stable stratum. In a sense, it was this difference that decided the distinct historical fate of the two strata Related Articles | Metrics

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The Economic Increase During the Ming and Qing Dynasties GAO Wang-Ling 1999, 0(4): 19-22.  Abstract ( )   PDF (2535KB) ( )   This is a companion volume to the articles “Arable land in the Qing Dynasty” and “Chinese Population during the Ming and Qing Dynasties”(March, 1993 and March,1994). It is well know that the economy during the Ming and Qing Dynasties had increased greatly. It is generally agreed that that increase represents the highest record of the traditional Chinese economy. However, the increase also represents the modern Chinese economy and it has its “modern” value. The economic increase in that period is closely related to the present day development. This article summarizes related issues and discusses the research work conducted in China and Abroad under this topic. Related Articles | Metrics

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Characteristics of the Urbanization in Modern China XING Long 1999, 0(4): 23-32.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1022KB) ( )   Starting with the flow of rural population into urban areas, the author adopts a comparative approach to study urbanization in modern China. Arguing that urbanization in modern China was quite different from that in the West, the author makes three observations:1)migration to urban areas in the West was due to the “pull”of the city, while Chinese urbanization was due to the “push” of the countryside;2)urbanization in the West was coincidental with industrialization, and the two phenomena spiraled upward, while in China urbanization was not tied to industrialization and sometimes occurred without it;3)urbanization in modern China has propelled social and economic development in both rural and urban areas, but with much more suffering and at greater cost. The author concludes that the social character resulting from the “semi-feudal and semi-colonial China” determined the historical characteristics of urbanization in modern China. Related Articles | Metrics

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内蒙古大学蒙古史研究所 WANG Yu-Hai 1999, 0(4): 33-39.  Abstract ( )   PDF (690KB) ( )   Based on archival sources and research by Japanese scholars, this article presents a detailed analysis of the use of contractors to open land in Eastern Mongolia by Mongolian Banners. This article reveals that the most noteworthy contractors were local landlords, merchants, usurers, and middle and lower level officials of the Mongolian Banners. Their major reason for contracting the land was to exploit their positions as middlemen. From the perspective of class relation, they represented an exploiting class and the majority of these contractors were local merchants or local merchants who also were secondary landlords Related Articles | Metrics

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An Alternative View of Sun Yatsen’s Anti-Manchu Thought GUO Shi-You 1999, 0(4): 40-49.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1040KB) ( )   Employs a macro-historical perspective developed from an important modern Chinese social contradiction to analyze concretely the pros and cons of Sun Yatsen’s anti-Manchu thought. The author believes that if we do not tak the modern-day nationalities policy as a standard to evaluate the anti-Manchu propaganda of Sun Yatsen, and if we face squarely the fact that Manchu-Han contradictions seriously obstructed the advance of China’s early modernization, from an objective historical reality, then the historical inevitability of its practice, and the entirety of its historical rationality were unmistakabl Related Articles | Metrics

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Vassal States of the Qing Dynasty ZHANG Yong-Jiang, YE Zi-Min 1999, 0(4): 50-56.  Abstract ( )   PDF (620KB) ( )   Vassal states were the most important organized component of the Qing Tributary System. The organization and development of the Qing Dynasty’s system of vassal states went through four stages:1)creation, 2)development, 3)flourishing, and 4)decline. Qing vassal states included three types. The establishment of vassal states was not entirely the result of military control. Aside from the vassal state relations directly established by the Qing court, the preexisting system of cour-vassal state relations, which predated the Qing, was also maintained. These vassal states were concentrated in Central Asia and Southeast Asia. Related Articles | Metrics

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Dispute over the Diplomatic Courtesy between China and Russia during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries SU Quan-You 1999, 0(4): 57-61.  Abstract ( )   PDF (521KB) ( )   In this article special emphasis is laid on the disagreements and misunderstandings concerning the diplomatic courtesy between China and Russia during the 17th and 18th centuries. The article analyses the objective causes of the disagreement and misunderstanding and its effect on the relationship between the two countries. Lessons could be drawn from the history related in the article to further develop the relationship between two countries. Related Articles | Metrics

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Introducing and Evaluating Halliday Macartney, A Diplomat of the Chinese Embassy to Britain WU Bao-Xiao 1999, 0(4): 62-66.  Abstract ( )   PDF (2699KB) ( )   The article investigates the thought and identity of Halliday Macartneg, and the anecdotes of Halhdag Macartney’s stance at work. The article concludes that Halliday Macartney, as a diplomat of the Chinese Embassy to Britain, had safeguarded China’s interests and had served the Chinese government. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Revised Version of the Ming History in the Four Treasures(Siku Quanshu) QIAO Zhi-Zhong, YANG Yan-Qiu 1999, 0(4): 67-73+124.  Abstract ( )   PDF (777KB) ( )   The original publication of the Ming History(published in the fourth year of the Qianlong reign) has received widespread praise throughout history, however few have paid attention to the meticulously revised and carefully corrected later revision of the Ming History which was included in the Four Treasures. The version contained in the Four Treasures was the ultimate achievement of Qing courts’ official compilation of the Ming History. Its overall scholarly level was higher than the original compilation of the Ming History, and it ought to receive a high degree of serious attention from scholars. Related Articles | Metrics

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Some Reflections on the Research of the Nineteenth Century Borders XU Song-Wei 1999, 0(4): 74-84.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1229KB) ( )   Taking the Opium Wat Year of 1840 as a dividing line, historical research on China’s nineteenth century borderlands can be divided into two stages. The research of the earlier stage was characterized by seeking truth from facts, serious and precise academic studies, and writing, which reflected an active interest in public affairs as well as a bright and rich spirit of patriotism. Later research on the one hand inherited the earlier period’s superior academic standards, and on the other handit adjusted to the great changes in Chinese societies. A new trend of joining the history of Chinese borderlands with the history of foreign countries appeared which had a great and profound influence on the scholars and society of that time. Related Articles | Metrics

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Late Qing Studies of Geography and Changes in Traditional Concepts of Heaven and Earth GUO Shuang-Lin 1999, 0(4): 85-97.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1131KB) ( )   During the late Qing, with the deepening of the study of geography, particularly the dissemination of the modern Western geographical knowledge of the Far East, traditional concepts of Heaven and Earth began to change. Specifically, the idea of a round heaven and a square earth were replaced by the globe, and the conception of a heaven in motion and a static earth was replaced by the heliocentric theory of the universe. The notion that China was the center of the world was also replaced by the modern notion of the world. This process ended at about the time of the Reform Movement of 1898. With the introduction of new geographical concepts, the system of Chinese traditional values began to undergo fundamental change and the system of Chinese modern values was gradually established. Related Articles | Metrics