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15 November 1994, Volume 0 Issue 4 Previous Issue    Next Issue

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On the Role of Li Hongzhang in the War of 1894 QI Qi-Zhang- 1994, 0(4): 1-8.  Abstract ( )   PDF (2972KB) ( )   Li Hongzhang played an important and complex role in the Sino一Japanese War.During the war he was in a crucial position to determine Qing success or defeat.This writer has thoroughly analyzed Li's attitudes and behavior toward Japan before the war and toward the question of peace during the negotiations at Shimonoseki.He advocated a policy of appeasement on the Korea question before the war.During the war his policy of seeking peace through war became one of simply suing for peace and throughout the peace negotiations.His efforts to avoid the carving up of China on all sides finally ended in failure.The main reason for this failure was that he and those around him did not understand Japan or the world situation.They did not pursue the war vigorously and instead placed their hopes for peace with the interference of the great powers. Related Articles | Metrics

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The War of 1894 and Japanese Spies LI Wen-Hai, KANG Pei-Zhu 1994, 0(4): 9-19.  Abstract ( )   PDF (3243KB) ( )   Japan’s intelligence activities in China were part of the implementation of Japanese colonial policy in East Asia.Prior to the Sino-Japanese War of 1984-95,Japan stepped up intelligence activities with the establishment of agencies in China.Japanese spies who posed as diplomats,businessmen，and students,disguised themselves as native Chinese,or were in fact bought-off Chinese traitors,collected information in all parts of China in order to prepare for aggression against it。After the Sino-Japanese War broke out，Japanese intelligence activities were even more widespread and played a very important role in a series of military campaigns,such as the naval battle at Fengdao Island,the battle over the Liaodong Peninsula,and the battle of Weihaiwei .During the War,some vigilant Chinese officials became aware of the danger of Japanese spies and proposed counter-espionage measures。The Chinese government also succeeded in cracking several spying cases.Generally speaking， however，the Chinese government was not effective at uncovering spies or keeping its military secrets. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Historical Position of the War of 1894 HU Sheng-Wu 1994, 0(4): 20-28.  Abstract ( )   PDF (3003KB) ( )   Reflecting after fifty years on Japan’s large-scale invasion of China from the Sino-Japanese War to the 1945 War in the Pacific.It is clear that the Sino-Japanese War greatly influenced the history of the two countries。This essay argues first of all that the Sino-Japanese War caused China great hardship and humiliation ,while also promoting the awakening of the Chinese people。Secondly,the war stimulated the unlimited expansion of the aggressive ambitions of the Japanese imperialists so that from this time on they pursued staunch policies of imperial expansion.Thirdly,the war completely altered the originally equal relationship between Japan and China,placing Japan in the ranks of imperial aggressors.Fourthly,the war destroyed the existing political system in the Far East touching off a long-term struggle among the big powers for influence in the region. Related Articles | Metrics

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Weng Tonghe and the war of 1894 GONG Shu-Duo 1994, 0(4): 29-35.  Abstract ( )   PDF (2923KB) ( )   During the Sino-Japanese War there emerged us the Qing government two factions ---a pro-war group led by Wong Tonghe and a pro-Peace group around Li Hongzhang.How should we assess these factions?Could war have been prevented if China had sued for peace？Who was responsible for China’s defeat?These major question of principle must be discussed.This essay argues that the Sino-Japanese War was entirely the result of Japanese plots and instigation.There are many reasons for China’s defeat，but it is a mistake to view it as a result of Wang and his faction’s opposition to peace and advocacy of a war of resistance. Related Articles | Metrics

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On Weng Tong he’s Role and Responsibilities in the War of 1894 ZHU Jin-Fu 1994, 0(4): 36-44.  Abstract ( )   PDF (2958KB) ( )   Weng Tonghe，as the emperor’s tutor and key minister strongly advocated a war of resistance against Japan and played a key role in the process of war-time policy-making in the Qing court。After its defeat,the Qing court suffered the unprecedented humiliation and hardship of losing troops,paying indemnities,and ceding territory，Weng was censured then for “advocating war and harming the country” and many historians today still reproach him for his pro-war stance。This writer believes that at a time when China faced Japanese aggression，Weng’s advocacy of a war of resistance and the pursuit of peace through war was a correct political choice arising out of motives of loyalty to the throne and patriotism。It represented the just voice of the government and the people and as such should not be condemned.Considering the balance of Chinese and Japanese forces at the time,the outcome was not inevitable.Chinese defeat was due only to the corruption of the Qing court and opposition to the war by the pro-peace faction led by Li Hongzhang who,though in charge of the war effort，sued for peace and gave up the initiative on the battlefield. Related Articles | Metrics

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New Evidence of the Lushun Massacre SUN Ke-Fu 1994, 0(4): 45-48.  Abstract ( )   PDF (2345KB) ( )   This essay uses a great number of historical materials from China and other countries and numerous excavated human remains to prove irrefutably that after Japan invaded and occupied the Liaodong Peninsula 100 years ago，it carried out an inhuman policy of ordering widespread massacres.Altogether over 200，000 innocent people were slaughtered .To continue to argue that the Chinese people whom the Japanese imperialists ordered killed at that time were “soldiers in civilian clothing” is a lie. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 and Emprese Dowager Cixi WANG Dao-Cheng 1994, 0(4): 49-56.  Abstract ( )   PDF (2836KB) ( )   By the end of the Guangxu Reign,the Beiyang Fleet had developed to the point of possessing 25 warships despite the fact that during this time the Empress Dowager Cixi had misappropriated 5-6 million liang of silver earmarked for naval construction to build the summer palace。Thus we cannot simply attribute China’s defeat in the Sina-Japanese War to the building of the Summer Palace.The fact that there were no further naval acquisitions was due to Cixi’s becoming suspicious of Li Hongzhang.She placed great importance on her sixtieth birthday which she planed to celebrate on a large scale at the Summer Palace and even when the war broke out she was unwilling to change her plans until the situation became dire.Her attitude toward the war went through several stages.At first she had a tough anti-Japanese stance,but after Qing defeats,she adopted a policy of capitulation and attacked the pro-war faction.She sent Li to Japan to sue for peace and encouraged him to sign the Treaty of Shimonoseki. Related Articles | Metrics

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An Analysis of the Factions for and Against War During the War of 1894 YANG Dong-Liang 1994, 0(4): 57-62.  Abstract ( )   PDF (2742KB) ( )   Three main points are discussed in this paper：first，the substance of pro-war and anti-war sentiment during the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95;second,the concrete manifestation of the debate between the two factions during the different stages of the war;and third，the question of which faction should bear responsibility for losing the war。The paper argues that the debate between the pro-war and anti-war camps should be studied within the context of the struggle between the invasion of imperialism and the resistance of the people in modern China。In the days when the big powers dominated the world，the victims of their aggression had no choice but to rise against the invaders to defend their national independence and state sovereignty by waging adjust anti-aggression war.Although the debate between the pro-war and anti-war factions ran throughout the entire war， the issues they debated the policies they advanced and the measures they adopted were not the same in the different stages of the war. Related Articles | Metrics

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An Analysis of the Military Causes for the Defeat of Qing Dynasty forces in the War of 1894 ZHANG Yi-Wen 1994, 0(4): 63-70.  Abstract ( )   PDF (2953KB) ( )   This paper provides a comprehensive analysis from the angle of military strategy of the fundamental factors contributing to the defeat of the Chinese armed fores in the Sino-Japanese War.The immediate cause of defeat should be sought in the illusion about peace cherished by Li Hongzhang and his delay in preparing for war when confronted with steady Japanese pressure.This delay resulted in China’s armed forces being thrown into a state of passivity from the very beginning of the campaign.After the declaration of the war on Japan，the Qing court failed to formulate a total strategy of army-navy coordination.The Beiyang Fleet remained inactive,failing to bring its forces into full play.While the army concentrated its forces on the northern flank,leaving Lushun and Weihaiwei with a shortage of defense forces.Moreover,the Qing defense system had become obsolete。Its armed forces lacked a sound general staff and logistics system and the professional quality of officers and men was at a low level.The above-mentioned factors,taken together,contribute to the disastrous defeat suffered by the Qing forces in the war. Related Articles | Metrics

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On the "Anti-Li Hongzhang" Struggle Waged by the Royalists and the Offical "Critics" During the War of 1894 DONG Cai-Shi, WANG Jian-Hua 1994, 0(4): 71-77.  Abstract ( )   PDF (2889KB) ( )   During the Sino一Japanese War of 1894-95,the Emperor’s faction opposed the policy of suing for peace and struggled with the faction around the Empress Dowager Cixi for political power.’The high level officials who played an important role in this taction saw Li Hongzhang as their chief opponent and repeatedly launched movements to”oppose Li.”The struggle to overthrow Li went through three phases after the negotiations between Li and the Japanese in 1895.The main aim of the anti一Li faction was to resist the efforts of the Empress Dowager’s faction to sue for peace by removing Li from his position of military leadership and installing pro-war officials to lead the war effort. Li's position was dependent on both the Empress Dowager’s faction and the Huai Army一Beiyang group.So these groups were also targets in the fight to overthrow Li.In the end,the Emperor’s faction did not succeed not only because Cixi's faction had already monopolized central government power,but also because the faction of the emperor and high officials itself had many weaknesses Related Articles | Metrics

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A Tribute to the Centenary of the War of 1894 WU Ting-Jia 1994, 0(4): 78-85.  Abstract ( )   PDF (3029KB) ( )   There are many reasons for China’s defeat in the Sino一Japanese War including both lack of technological preparation and mistakes in military strategy.But according to these historical studies,the defeat of the Qing army had even more complex social causes like the corruption of the feudal system and those in control of the army and government, outmoded thinking,and the weakening of military morale and popular resolve.In addition,the Qing government miscalculated the extent of Japanese ambition and actually strength and adopted mistaken military strategies.blindly begging the big powers for support and thus tragically losing the war.The loss of this war greatly aroused every level of Chinese society,giving rise to modern thinking and the movement of political reform. Related Articles | Metrics

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A Study of the Sea Battle in the Yellow Sea The Causes for the Defeat of the Northern Naval Fleet and the Question of the Array of Warships PAN Xiang-Ming 1994, 0(4): 86-94.  Abstract ( )   PDF (3002KB) ( )   This is a study of the reasons for the defeat of the Beiyang Fleet in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95 which traces the relationship between military preparation during the years leading up to the war and the ineffective battle formation used by the Chinese in the naval battles on the Yellow Sea.The immediate cause of the Chinese defeat was the complete collapse of the battle formation.But failure was determined by the fact that the fleet’s warship were all outmoded.When they were purchased a decade before the war,the main attacking power of warship was the forward guns(bow chasers)and the ran bow.These ships had few,if any gunwale which were central to the later technology。Reliance on these outmoded ships forced the fleet to use battle formations that moved to be gravely deficient. Related Articles | Metrics

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The War of 1894 and Zhejiang’s Industrialization in Modern Times SHEN Yu-Wu 1994, 0(4): 95-102.  Abstract ( )   PDF (2730KB) ( )   Between 1895 and 1900 the development of national industry in Zhejiang province reached its first high tide.During this short period of five years,22 new factories and mines with capital of 3,953,000 yuan were established.a,number unprecedented in the history of Chinese national industry .Between 1901 and 1913 the development of Zhejiang national industry reached its second high tide.Some historians have argued that 1909-1910 was a period of depression and decline for this industry.But this author presents a different view,using the example of Zhejiang to portray a general situation of gradual recovery and development.From the end of the Sin0-Japanese War in 1895 until 1913 the path of development of Zhejiang’s national industry was tortuous、nous.It is important to note the remarkable difference between the development of this industry in the 1895---1900 phase and in the1901---1910 phase.The former period was marked by a focus on big factories and mines.while in the second small and medium --sized factories and mines were more important.This shift in development patterns demonstrates the differing economy basis of the movements for reform and revolution and the different stages of the development of the bourgeoisie. Related Articles | Metrics

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Three Topics of the Arguments in Favour of War During the War of 1894 HUANG Xing-Tao 1994, 0(4): 103-110+35.  Abstract ( )   PDF (3119KB) ( )   This paper discusses the nature of the pro-war public opinion in China during the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95,addressing mainly the following three issues.First,it explains the basic approach and attitudes of this public opinion by analyzing the back ground of the war，contrasting the actual strength between China and Japan,and discussing the strategy and tactics of so-called “lasting resistance”.Secondly, the paper discusses the weaknesses of this public opinion，including megalomania，pursing their struggle only on paper,and propagandizing conservative ideas.Finally,it discusses the relationship between this public opinion and the rise of reform thinking in 1898，demonstrating that the former laid the ideological foundation for the latter。 Related Articles | Metrics