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15 May 2002, Volume 0 Issue 2 Previous Issue    Next Issue

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A Reexamination of Rates of Rent Collection GAO Wang-Ling 2002, 0(2): 17-32.  Abstract ( )   PDF (316KB) ( )   The main focus of this article is rent rates, a very different problem within the historical research of land system. Prior research has relied on the rent rates written in contracts on the assumption that landlords could collect as much as a contract stipulated. Recent scholarly research on the landlord rent records has demonstrated that there were marked differences between the stipulated rents and the actual amount collected. Often landlords were only able to collect 70- 80% of the rents due and, moreover, the rate steadily fell. For this reason research on rent rates should begin from the “true rate received.” In this essay the author employs this method to study one aspect of the problem of peasants, landlords and rents. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Evolution of Local Finance and Government Functions in Fujian during the Qing Dynasty ZHENG Zhen-Man 2002, 0(2): 24-35.  Abstract ( )   PDF (735KB) ( )   The early Qing inherited the Ming policy of single whip reform, which created a quota system at each level of government administration that simultaneously reduced local budgets and weaken capabilities at all levels of local government. In the mid-Qing the system of meltage fees(haokou guigong) and salary supplements (yanglian yin) was implemented to strengthen local government but as these new policies were corrupted and they disappeared. By the later Qing dynasty, all of Fujian Province had a centralized uniform budget system, and the local governments had lost their financial autonomy. As a way out, during the late Qing period, the local governments depended on donations and lijin paid by local merchants for their finances. This strengthened efficiency and performance of local government, but led to the integration of gentry and merchants. Consequently, it also created a possibility of autonomy of the local governments. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Formation of the Policy of Return of Meltage Fees to the Public Coffers in Yongzheng Rein DONG Jian-Zhong 2002, 0(2): 36-45.  Abstract ( )   PDF (746KB) ( )   After ascending the throne, Emperor Yongzheng issued edicts banning Governors and Governor Generals accepting gifts from their subordinates, department expenses and discounting salaries. This eliminated the customary fees distribution system and the objectionable practices that had existed since the middle of the Kangxi reign. On the other hand, these changes created severe deficits that had to be met. For more than one year, the Yongzheng emperor and local officials investigated and discussed the problem through palace memorials eventually leading to the policy of “return of meltage fees to the public coffers.” This policy not only made up the deficits, but also provided funds for local public expenditure and additional salary to officials to “maintain honest.” Related Articles | Metrics

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An Analysis of the Qing Governments Policies toward the Mentally Ill HAO Bing-Jian 2002, 0(2): 46-57.  Abstract ( )   PDF (2703KB) ( )   The mentally occupied a special place in society. Due to their disabilities they sometimes caused harm to property and could be a danger to others. In order to prevent such incidents, the Qing government instituted a policy of “registration and confinement”(baoguan suogu). According to this practice, the families of insane persons were ordered to register them with their magistrates, after which the relatives kept the insane persons confined at home under strict surveillance. At first, the Qing government treated insane criminals leniently, even killers were set free without trial, but during the Qianlong reign, attitudes toward insane offenders increasingly hardened. Eventually, the Qing government not only imposed the death penalty on homicides committed by the mental1y ill, but also for those who were accused of “seditious writings”( ni ci). Related Articles | Metrics

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Social Control in the Middle Qing Dynasty: “Chen Si Case” in 1711 WANG Cheng-Lan 2002, 0(2): 58-67.  Abstract ( )   PDF (469KB) ( )   The“Chen Si Case”occurred in 1711. Chen Si and his companions were itinerant performers who were accused and tried for robbery and other crimes. In the end, more than ten people were sentenced to exile, one was beheaded, and several ministers were demoted. Compared with other cases that occurred in the same period, the handling of the “Chen Si Case”was particularly severe because the highest Qing rulers worried about increasing social mobility and vagabondage. This essay examines the social conditions of the time and the factors that motivated the rulers to seek greater control over society. Related Articles | Metrics

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Conflicts between Local Belief and Foreign Culture ZHAO Ying-Xia 2002, 0(2): 68-75.  Abstract ( )   PDF (511KB) ( )   From point of view of processions in honor of local deities ( yingshen saishe), this article examines conflict between Christianity and folk religion in modern Shanxi. The essay presents some of the more spectacular conflicts, and then examines the historical origins and social functions of religious processions. Cherished by local people, missionaries disregarded traditional custom,and banned Christians from taking part in such activities. As a result, conflicts between Christians and countrymen arose.The author discusses the causes of conflicts from perspective of the gentry’s defense of their own authority and peasants’satisfaction of their psychological needs. In conclusion, the essay emphasizes how a series of grave droughts caused these types of conflicts to reach a climax at the end of the nineteenth century. Related Articles | Metrics

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An Analysis of the Characteristics of Central Shanxi Merchants and Social Mobility BI Yuan 2002, 0(2): 76-86.  Abstract ( )   PDF (619KB) ( )   The merchant stratum was the characteristic social group of central Shanxi. On one hand they associated with high- ranking officials, on the other hand they devoted themselves to local development, in order to he approved by local society. Still, they could not establish an independent position outside the mainstream moral system leaving them with an awkward dual social role. Simultaneously, central Shanxi merchants had a pronounced gentry first merchant last consciousness, after gaining wealth through commerce they headed toward the path of an official career. Thus, as the merchants advanced toward modernity, the characteristics of the old merchant class faded out as they pursued a more official role. This was the special feature of professional emergence. Related Articles | Metrics

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Huizhou Merchants and The Ziyang Academy Of Hankou in the Qing Dynasty: A Case Study of a Merchant- sponsored Academy during Ming and Qing Dynasties LI Lin-Qi 2002, 0(2): 87-93.  Abstract ( )   PDF (553KB) ( )   During the Ming and Qing dynasties, Huizhou Merchants not only on supported educational institutions in their home district, but also established academies in areas where they migrated. The Ziyang Academy of Hankou was a typical example of the academies that these merchants established for the studies of their male descendants who migrated with them. The establishment of the Ziyang Academy contributed to both the development of commercial economy in the late feudal period and reflected the common character of Huizhou Merchants who both “traded and felt enthusiasm for Confucianism.”An examination of the establishment of the Academy and the operation of its finances reveals the differences between merchant- sponsored academies and traditional academies. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Qing Postal System in Yunnan and Guizhou LIU Wen-Peng 2002, 0(2): 94-101.  Abstract ( )   PDF (580KB) ( )   The postal system in Yunnan and Guizhou which extended to Beijing In the east, reached Tibet and Sichuan in the West and Burma in the southeast developed gradually under specific set of historical circumstances. The series of postal stations formed an extensive and integrated framework for the transmission of communications. The essay also explores the costs of maintaining the system, official embezzlement and other topics. Related Articles | Metrics