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15 April 2020, Volume 0 Issue 2 Previous Issue    Next Issue

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Abolition of Lijia and Establishment of Ziqu: Taxation and Corvée Reform and the Reconstruction of Basic Level Administration in Hengshan County in Early Qing Dynasty ZHANG Aiping 2020, 0(2): 1-12.  Abstract ( )   PDF (10024KB) ( )   Abstract:In the early Qing dynasty, areas of Hunan province that had been ravaged by warfare underwent a process of rebuilding the tax and corvee systems that included land reclamation reallocation of taxes, and land surveys. The reform of the tax and corvee in Hengshan County in 1704 reveals the salient features of the abolition the lijia and the establishment of the ziqu system of administration. Following Governor Zhao Shenqiao's initiative, the abolishment of the lijia expedited tax collection, and Hengshan County broke the shackles of lijia rules and regulations. Adhering to the principle of no cross-regional grain distribution and setting up districts at the local level, these reforms gave birth to the geographical features of the ziqu system and remodeled the tax and corvee zoning system into seventeen zi and 437 qu. Taking the new round of land reclamation in 1714 as anopportunity, the magistrate or Hengshan county, Ge Liangchen surveyed wasteland within the ziqu administrative framework. Subsequently, ziqu became an important local unit for tax, corvee, and land registration. In the historical process of shaping this region, the administrative function of the ziqu was gradually strengthened and extended. Meanwhile, the taxes and corvee divisions at the grass roots were formalized and great strides were made in regional political organization. The new administrative terminology and concepts also profoundly affected the composition of land contracts. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Emperor as Cakravartin and the Incarnation of Manjusri: The Relationship between the Qianlong Emperor and Tibetan Buddhism AN Haiyan 2020, 0(2): 105-118.  Abstract ( )   PDF (12935KB) ( )   In historical context,Tibetan Buddhism provided the title of Cakravartin and the Incarnation of Manjusrī as religious honorifics and symbols for Chinese rulers.Whether it was passive acceptance or active embrace, the two titles identified the secular rulers as emperors of Chinese dynasty.The original intention of the Qianlong emperor’s acceptance of the two titles,especially Incarnation of Manjusrī, was to bring the Qing rulers into an orthodox sequence with previous emperors of Chinese dynasties. On this basis, these two titles deified the Qing emperors,and also increased the affinity of Mongolians and Tibetans for the Qing Emperors. The author argue that American scholars of New Qing History have lacked the evidence to support their position that the Qianlong emperor ruled the country with the concepts of Tibetan Buddhism’s Cakravartin and Incarnation of Manjusrī. The emperors of Qing dynasty always regarded themselves as rulers of a Chinese dynasty in their relationship to the Mongolians and Tibetans, and they had no intention of creating a theocracy. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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From She to Village: The Implementation of “Conform with the Village” Administrative Method in Shouguang County, Shandong in the Early Qing Period HUANG Yawen 2020, 0(2): 13-25.  Abstract ( )   PDF (9934KB) ( )   The organization and change of local society had a close relationship with the evolution of tax and labor reform. This essay uses Shouguang county in Shandong province as a case study to demonstrate how magistrates were able to collect enough taxes and services despite the lack of adequate and records and maps. This study shows that by the end of the Qianlong era the magistrates had carried out the "conform with the village"method to reorganize grass roots administrations. This tax collection method identified the tax-paying villages based on the actual residential patterns of the people and then recorded their tax quotas, rather than following the lijia organization. The method was simple, but it had great social significance. With the establishment of this method, village heads played a more important role in collecting and remitting taxes References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Concept of Learning Orthodoxy and the Shift of Classic Studies in the Early Qing LUO Jianqiu 2020, 0(2): 45-60.  Abstract ( )   PDF (12962KB) ( )   Abstract:Building on current scholarship, this research examines the transition from the Song Learning （Song Neo-Confucian, lixue） to Han Learning（Han xue） in the Qing dynasty, with special focus on the rise of "learning orthodoxy"and the decline of the Confucian orthodoxy. While scholar officials who advocated Song Learning were too blinded by Confucian orthodoxy to interpret "learning orthodoxy, many private scholars did shed light on the Song Learning. These scholars advocated classical research methods to replace Song learning approaches, and even converted themselves into followers of the Han Learning. The interaction of Confucian ideas between officials and non-official scholars developed in a complex context and transformed into"the way of inner transcendence"of Confucian learning in the early Qing. This facilitated a shift from the dominance of Song Learning to the revival of the Han Learning References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Dialectical Structure on “Xu-Shi” Theory in the General Catalogue of The Complete Library of the Four Treasuries CAI Zhili 2020, 0(2): 61-72.  Abstract ( )   PDF (9580KB) ( )   In ancient Chinese academic criticism, the terms"xu"（insubstantial） and"shi（substantial）were used as evaluative terms. However, distinguishing what was" xu and what was"shi was a subjective judgment. In the critical view of the General Catalogue of The Complete library of the Four Treasuries（Siku Quanshu Zongmu, the concept of"xu-shi"was multi-layered, with a dialectical structure between the different layers. In terms of academic content, xu-shi mainly referred to whether the contents had practical application, and whether the nature of the content was related to human affairs Regarding academic methods, the concept primarily referred to reliability. Since contentand methods were two sides of the same coin, if some works are considered"shi"in both regards, they might be called"shi-xue"in the General Catalogue. However, " shi-xue"was considered relatively practical in the General Catalogue, because it placed a higher value on utility. There was another three layer dialectical structure of the General Catalogue " xu-shi"theory in terms of academic practicality. In view of purposiveness, shi-xue"still meant insubstantial without statecraft application. Furthermore with a view to utility, writings without practical effect but only statecraft purpose were considered insubstantial. In terms of practical action, effective suggestions without execution were also considered only"dead letters. Considering the versatile character of xu-shi, and the complexity of the"xu shi"theory in the General Catalogue, specialized recent research on"Shi-xue "is worthy of discussion regarding the validity of its academic conceptualization References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Career Prospects of Youbagong Degree Candidates in The Late Qing Dynasty:A Reflection on Official Arrogance and the Nation’s Demise ZHANG Zhongmin 2020, 0(2): 92-104.  Abstract ( )   PDF (10399KB) ( )   After the abolishment of the imperial examination in 1905,the Qing court retained some auxiliary examinations such as Youbagong as alternatives to deal with aftermath. Afterwards the Youbagong examination became a popular option and virtually replaced the traditional provincial and central levels imperial examinations.The new examinations attracted many candidates, especially those with backgrounds in modern education.Nevertheless,the social status brought?by the Youbagong degree was far inferior to the status of the traditional imperial examination degrees.Also,the prospects for the Youbagong candidates were not so bright, and most found it ifficult to achieve a position in the government. Undoubtedly, official arrogance aggravated the dilemma and the suffering of the Qing court, and was considered by many as the cause of the dynasty’s demise. References | Related Articles | Metrics