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15 May 2021, Volume 0 Issue 3 Previous Issue    Next Issue

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A Study of the Marriage of the Three Feudatories Chinese Women in the Imperial Household Department Liu Xiaomeng 2021, 0(3): 1-11.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1414KB) ( )   The Three Feudatories Chinese was one type of bondservants in the Imperial Household Department in Qing Dynasty. After the Emperor Kangxi had suppressed the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, the offenders were executed, and their property was confiscated. Thus, their family dependents, relatives, and former subordinates were incorporated into the Imperial Household Department. Known as the “Three Feudatories Chinese”, one half of these individuals were women. Based on the Manchu archives of the Imperial Household Department, this paper aims to exam the compulsory marriage of the Three Feudatories Chinese women. Compulsory refers to the fact that these women were assigned and married to the Banner people of the Imperial Household Department by force. The identities of the Three Feudatories Chinese women were complex, their marriage partners included banner officials in the upper-three banners, Baoyi company commanders and poor banner slaves in the Imperial Household Department. The marriages, which totally ignored the wishes of those women, epitomized the despotism of imperial power under the Manchus and the dominance over servants and slaves of the royal family. During the Kangxi and Qianlong Periods, as Manchu dominance waned, the restrictions on marriage of the royal family servants were gradually relaxed and compulsory marriages ended. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Tea-horse Trade and the Continuation and the Rise and Fall of its Bureau in the Early Qing Dynasty Zhang Nanlin 2021, 0(3): 105-115.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1426KB) ( )   In the early years of the Qing Dynasty, although the establishment of the Tea-horse Trade was preserved and the Tea-horse Trade Bureau (Chama si) continued to be maintained. But the nature of the trade changed. A series of systems related to the “to control the Tibetans with tea” (yicha yufan) strategy were not established in time. The smuggling trade of tea and horses provided a channel for buying horses privately with silver. The tea which stored in the storeroom was no longer used as a fixed trading material for horses, and people increasingly bought horses with silver. As a result, the tea and horse administrations were gradually separated. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Perceptions of Natural Division in Geographic Writing in the Late Qing Dynasty WANG Pengwei 2021, 0(3): 116-129.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1473KB) ( )   In the late eighteenth century, a new method of natural division appeared in Western geography, and in the works of Western scholars, the natural division of China also appeared, but the eighteen inland provinces and border areas were often separated or introduced side by side, and the natural divisions were limited to the eighteen inland provinces. Absorbing Western knowledge, Japan also divided the eighteen inland provinces into “North, South, Central. ” This method of division, combined with the three major rivers of “Yangtze River, Yellow River and Pearl River”, and evolved into “Central Yangtze River Basin”, “Northern Yellow River Basin” and “Southern Pearl River Basin”. This concept was introduced into China by many Japanese translations and became popular in the late Qing Dynasty’s local chronicles about China. At the same time, due to the efforts of Liang Qichao and others, this knowledge combined with the concept of civilization and history, integrated with the trend of nationalism, and expanded its influence. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Aftermath of Land Enclosure by the Eight Banners: A Study of the Bobu Lands in the Early Qing QIU Yuanyuan 2021, 0(3): 12-23.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1459KB) ( )   In the early years of the Qing dynasty, the government enclosed 500 li of land around the capital city to establish manors for bannermen. To compensate the commoners who were relocated after their land was enclosed, the government allocated land in nearby counties to the civilian households. This practice was called bobu. Although bobu lands did not belong to the Eight-Banner system, they were a product of the banner land policy. The time of allocation and the location of the bobu land were determined along with the progress of the land enclosure. In the end, the bobu lands were in the areas surrounding the banner lands. Taking Beijing as the center, these lands spread out in layers into the southern region of Zhili, and were distributed in 67 counties of 8 prefectures and 2 independent department, as well as in the garrison system including Xuanfu Town. Therefore, although the southern counties of Zhili did not have any banner land, this region was still affected by the Eight-Banner system through the implementation of bobu lands. This paper focuses on the creation and distribution of the bobu lands due to the enclosure of banner lands and examines the indirect influence of the Eight-Banner system on the life of non-banner people and areas in Zhili province. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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International Competition and the Academic Evolution of Modern Western Studies of Tibet CUI Huajie 2021, 0(3): 130-142.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1468KB) ( )   Driven by colonial interests, Westerners went deep into Tibet to carry out various surveys in modern times and indirectly started cultural research activities in Tibet. With the efforts of travelers, missionaries, and other individuals, as well as professional organizations such as the Royal Geographical Society, Britain gradually changed the study of Tibet from a geographical information search to a comprehensive academic investigation. For the sake of geopolitical interests, Russia engaged in academic competition with Britain in Tibetan studies, and Western studies made historic contributions. From the perspective of local, national, and international observations, the United States eventually extended Western Tibetan studies from the geographical travel sketch to the academic system of regional studies. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Some Notes on the Manchu Manuscript Ge Ti Ciowan Lu bithe Gu Songjie, Gao Xi 2021, 0(3): 143-150.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1422KB) ( )   Related Articles | Metrics

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Research on the Relationship between Jinchuan Chieftain and Tibet Zhang Kang 2021, 0(3): 151-156.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1340KB) ( )   Related Articles | Metrics

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A Study of the Nomadic Habitations outside the Great Wall of the Eight Banners in the Qing Dynasty N. Hasbagana 2021, 0(3): 24-36.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1421KB) ( )   The situation of the Qing Mongol Eight Banners’ habitation is only vaguely described in officially composed documents like Eight Banners’ General Records (first edition), Eight Banners’ General Records (second edition) and other related sources of the eight banners. Recently, we observed from the archives in Manchu, Mongolian and Chinese, kept by The Toyo Bunku in Japan, The First Historical Archives of China, National Library of China and other institutions, that a portion of the population from the Mongol Eight Banners were nomads who were stationed in Mongolian grasslands outside the Great Wall. At first, the Kharachin golden family and some Uryangkhai nobilities and their subjects were in affiliation with the Manchu Eight Banners until they were transferred to Mongol Eight Banners in the ninth year of Tiancong when Manchu Court newly established the Mongol Eight Banners. At that time, Mongolians still lived in their old nomadic territory, which is now in Zhenlan Banner and Duolun County of Inner Mongolia. According to historical data, from the early Qing Dynasty through the late Qing, many Mongolians from the Mongol Eight Banners, consisting of multiple tribes like Kharachin, Khuuchit, and Jarut, had been living outside the Great Wall. In addition, some men and households belonging to the Manchu Eight Banner, Chinese Eight Banners, Herding Administration, and the princes, etc. had also been living outside the Great Wall for a long time. All these facts make for a conclusion that the people of Beijing eight banners and grassland eight banners were to certain extent able to flow to each other in the Qing Dynasty. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Confrontation under the Convention: Catholic Church and Mongol Banner in the Late Qing Dynasty Sudebilige 2021, 0(3): 37-53.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1437KB) ( )   How Christianity was propagated in frontier regions in modern history, especially its impact on the local ethnic societies, requires further research. Catholicism was the most widely propagated western religion in Mongolia, and it also had the most profound influence. Taking advantage of the privileges which were given by the unequal treaties, Catholic missionaries broke through legal and traditional restrictions in Qing Mongolia, and successfully proselytized in the eastern and western parts of Inner Mongolia. However, the mission did not reach its initial goal to spread the religion among the Mongols and establish independent Mongolian Christian communities. Therefore, the missionaries shifted their focus to the Han-Chinese migrants in Mongol. But the special administrative system of Mongol, the nomadic economy, and Tibetan Buddhist culture, did not harmonize with Western Christianity, so after the long confrontation between the missionaries and the Mongol banners, very few Mongols converted to Christianity. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Han Soldiers in the Northern Gobi Desert: The Rotation of the Green Standard Army Garrison in the General of Uliasutai’s Jurisdiction in the Qing Dynasty WANG Gang 2021, 0(3): 54-69.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1489KB) ( )   In the mid-Qianlong period, the Qing government set up a system of regular replacement of garrison troops for the Green Standard Army in the cities of Uliasutai and Khobdo, in northern the Gobi Desert. Most of the Green Standard Army’s officers and soldiers came from Xuanhua in Zhili Province and Datong in Shanxi Province. These troops were responsible for cultivation and various errands. Each time when the Green Standard Army was replaced, many people were stranded there. By the Guangxu reign, it was a common phenomenon that ordinary soldiers were stationed for ten to twenty years, which led to the deterioration of their living conditions. The military system under the General of Uliasutai’s Jurisdiction was mainly composed of Mongolian officers and soldiers, assisted by the Green Standard Army and the Eight Banner Army. This was the choice made by the Qing government after weighing various factors such as local political environment, ethnic composition, natural conditions, and economic costs. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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A Study of the Merger of the Gucheng with the Manchu Garrison in Balikun and Urumqi from the Perspective of the Establishment of Xinjiang Province in the Late Qing Dynasty CHEN Yue 2021, 0(3): 70-77.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1392KB) ( )   During the reigns of Tongzhi and Guangxu, Xinjiang suffered social unrest, and the officers and soldiers stationed in the Manchu Garrison and their families suffered serious losses. After the recovery of Xinjiang, the Qing government decided to establish Xinjiang Province and to adjust the administrative, economic, and military systems in Xinjiang, including resettling the surviving Manchu Garrison soldiers and their families in Balikun and Urumqi. In the end, the officers, and soldiers of Gucheng were transferred from the jurisdiction of Yili, and placed under the Xinjiang Governor of Gansu Province. The choice of moving places, the banner system, the payment of taxes, and the dispute over military command, reflected the complicated process of reforming the military system during the establishment of Xinjiang Province in the late Qing Dynasty. This was not only an important aspect of the reform of the military system in Xinjiang, but also one of the consequences of the transformation of Xinjiang’s local governance in the late Qing Dynasty. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Rising Social Mobility of Shed People in Jiangxi Province in Qing Dynasty: A Case study of Huangbi Village in Yanshan County LIAO Han 2021, 0(3): 78-89.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1431KB) ( )   The historical experience of the “shed people” (pengmin) in Jiangxi Province during Qing Dynasty illustrates the long process of upward social mobility for the underclass in the traditional times. The achievement of upward social mobility for the shed people can be divided into four stages. First, they obtained a relatively stable way to earn a living, settled down and acclimated to the place of relocation, and had basic rights recognized by the government. Second, they engaged in mountain goods trade, accumulated wealth, invested in public welfare undertakings, and joined the local elite. Then, they were able to support the ethnic minorities in their academic study and obtain imperial examination degrees and the qualifications to become officials. Therefore, the social status of the shed people was not materially different from that of ordinary people. Finally, the shed people secured office and created opportunities for their children. In traditional period, the essence of social mobility was not to take the imperial civil service examinations and gain fame, but to obtain a part of the ruling power granted and transferred by the ruler or a specific group through various channels, as well as the privileges and honors attached to this power. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Discovery and Preliminary Study of the Draft Code Submitted in 1707 YAO Yu 2021, 0(3): 90-104.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1468KB) ( )   It is identified that a manuscript of the Great Qing Code (Da Qing Lü Ji Jie Fu Li) collected by National Library of China could be the draft code submitted in 1707, the 46th year of Kangxi reign. The discovery of this manuscript provides new historical materials for further research on legislative activities in the reigns of Kangxi and Yongzheng. The comparison of the draft code and the Shunzhi Code indicates that the revision of law in the Kangxi reign was systematized and fruitful, and it laid a solid foundation for the Yongzheng Code. Contrasting the draft code with the Yongzheng code has found that the latter not only inherited but also amended and developed the former. The draft code and the Yongzheng Code were in the same lineage while they had different characteristics, collectively both codes reflected the evolution of the Qing’s Code from inheriting the Ming’s Code to adjusting to circumstances. References | Related Articles | Metrics